South Asia Regional Report

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Introduction

South Asia is the home to a vast array of cultures, economies, geographies, nation-states, and world religions. The Lausanne South Asia region comprises the nations of Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka.

Socio-religious crosswinds involving Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism, and Islam, along with Communism and Radical Fundamentalism have left lasting impacts upon the region’s societies today. Christianity faces immense struggles, including navigating ingrained social stratification, culturally-accepted discrimination, as well as state-sponsored persecution.

Despite the challenges, the gospel of the kingdom moves forward through a resilient minority, an opportunistic diaspora, and the rise of indigenous theologies that provide a fresh witness of Christ in revolutionary ways. The future of Christianity in the region is expected to yield new insights into the global impact of the message of Christ.¹

This brief report, voicing the conditions, concerns, and hopes of the region, attempts to present the following four reflections impacting the life and mission of the Christian church: (1) global topics (2) regional issues (3) impacts of these issues, and (4) opportunities and challenges for Great Commission efforts. We shall begin with key global topics.

Key Global Topics that Will Shape the Region between Now and 2050

Persecution

In the regions of Afghanistan (including adjacent parts of Iran), India, Maldives, Bangladesh, and Pakistan the key global topic is persecution of Christians. According to the World Watch List 2024 these five South Asian countries are ranked within the first fifteen most persecuted nations for their faith in Christianity: Pakistan is 7^th, Iran is 9^th, Afghanistan is 10^th, and India is 11^th. In all these nations Christians face state-sponsored persecution. They are detained and often punished with torture and long prison sentences.²

Bangladesh, though established as a secular country, has rejected its roots and attacks on Christians have increased.³ On the World Watch List, Bangladesh is ranked 26th.⁴ In April 2023, eight tribal Christians in the Chittagong Hill Tracts were killed. Another recent trend is the oppression of Christians in the Rohingya refugee camps. Rohingyas are a Muslim sect who have been forced to leave their homeland in Myanmar and the Christians amongst them have been subject to violence and persecution.⁵

Even though Pakistan has moved down two spots from five in 2019, this does not imply a significant reduction in the levels of persecution. Christians face discrimination at educational institutions and also in the workplace. They face deplorable conditions at work, with 80 percent of sanitation workers in the country being Christian⁶ and poverty-stricken believers being trapped as indentured labour in the brick kilns.⁷ Some Christians, especially those who are modern-day slaves, are subject to forced conversion to Islam. Pakistani authorities are empowered to punish individuals deemed guilty of offending another person’s religious sentiments. There are many such cases where Christians are subjected to murder, death or lifetime imprisonment.⁸

In India, attacks on Christians and their places of worship have steadily skyrocketed, not only in rural areas, but also in large cities. The United Christian Forum stated that between January and June 2023, 400 incidents of violence against Christians across 23 States in India were recorded.⁹

In Sri Lanka, Buddhist monks have opposed the activities of the church and have also incited violence against Christians. All citizens of Maldives are required by law to be Muslims and the opposition to conversion remains high.

Poverty and economic inequality

The 2023 Multidimensional Poverty Index Report finds over a third of all poor people in the world live in South Asia—which is around 389 million people. The World Bank defines poverty using the International Poverty Line, which designates extreme poverty at USD 2.15 per person per day.

Over several decades of civil unrest in Afghanistan, the economy has floundered. Malnutrition has soared, and hundreds of thousands of jobs have been lost. 875,000 children are acutely malnourished while 840,000 women suffer from moderately severe malnourishment. 82 percent of all households have accumulated debts.¹⁰ A similar situation is observed in Iran. In 2023 the Iranian Central Bank indicated that government debts have doubled. The official statistics have shown that daily calorie intake per capita has decreased by 22 percent. Inflation for essential items in 2023 was between 60 and 100 percent. The Iranian media reported that unemployment rates had declined but labour force participation rates have also gone down.

In Sri Lanka, with shrinking purchasing power and rising taxation, the new middle class are now facing basic struggles of survival despite their income levels. The frustrations of being unable to afford a middle-class lifestyle have also led to what might be termed a mass exodus of skilled labour in search of better futures overseas. Although the Sri Lankan government seems to be meeting its targets in terms of IMF conditions for extended fund facility, the reforms set in motion seem to be systematically dismantling social security nets such as welfare benefits that support the poorest. With increasing indirect and direct taxation hitting the middle-income households, a large proportion of Sri Lankans will struggle to survive.

The condition is somewhat similar for India. Although a growing global economy where some of the richest individuals of the world live, India is facing the issue of poverty like never before. According to Forbes India, poverty is a complex and multifaceted issue in India influenced by a combination of historical, socio-economic, and political factors.¹¹

‘Poverty is a complex and multifaceted issue in India- a growing global economy where some of the richest individuals of the world live-influenced by a combination of historical, socio-economic, and political factors.’

Global economic inequality remains a significant issue, affecting access to resources, education, and opportunities. The church has a role in addressing these disparities through social justice initiatives, charitable programs, and advocacy. By working to alleviate poverty and support economic empowerment, the church can demonstrate the practical implications of the gospel and its commitment to loving one’s neighbor.¹²

Globalization and migration

Globalization continues to shape the world, influencing economic systems, cultural exchanges, and communication networks.¹³ The church must adapt to this interconnectedness by fostering a global perspective in its mission. This includes supporting international missions, promoting cross-cultural understanding, and leveraging technology to connect with believers worldwide. Globalization offers unprecedented opportunities for the church to share the gospel across borders but also requires careful navigation of cultural sensitivities and global issues.¹⁴

Global migration is on the rise due to conflicts, economic opportunities, and environmental changes. This migration can be within the country and between countries as well. The Kerala State Planning Board of 2024 says that about 3.4 million¹⁵ workers have migrated into this southern Indian state. These workers include those from the eastern region of the country as well as from Bangladesh and Nepal. This trend brings diverse populations into closer contact, presenting both challenges and opportunities for the church. Migrants often face significant hardships, and the church has a unique opportunity to offer support and share the gospel with them. However, integrating diverse cultural backgrounds within congregations can also be challenging, requiring sensitivity and inclusiveness in ministry practices.¹⁶

LGBTQI+

The growing acceptance and advocacy for LGBTQI+ rights globally challenges traditional Christian teachings on sexuality and marriage. This movement will push the church to re-examine its doctrines and pastoral approaches. Churches will need to find a balance between upholding biblical teachings and extending love and compassion to individuals in the LGBTQI+ community. This topic will require the church to engage in thoughtful, respectful dialogue while staying true to its convictions.¹⁷

Digital ministry and the impact of AI

With the introduction of social media and social platforms, outreach has been greatly simplified. The digital revolution has also made dissemination of information through church websites or communication across the church less difficult, thus strengthening fellowship. In addition, digital tools have made collaborative activities much easier. 

Evangelism has benefitted tremendously through the advent of digital technologies like online Bibles, mobile applications, and various social platforms. The prudent use of social media has amplified the reach of God’s word and the availability of the Bible in several native languages has made literacy less of a factor in evangelism.

The drawback of digital ministry is that fellowship can also become more of a virtual phenomenon than a physical one.¹⁸ AI technology is advancing rapidly, bringing both opportunities and ethical dilemmas. AI can enhance church operations, such as improving administrative tasks, creating engaging digital content, and facilitating global communication. However, it also raises significant ethical questions, such as the potential for job displacement, privacy concerns, and the moral implications of AI decision-making. The church must provide clear, biblically grounded guidance on how to navigate these issues responsibly.¹⁹

Some thematic biblical reflections for digital ministry include, but are not limited to, the following:

Proclamation evangelism in a digital age 

The Great Commission calls Christians to make disciples of all nations, teaching them to observe Christ’s commands (cf, Matt 28:19–20). Theologically, digital evangelism should be rooted in authenticity, relational engagement, and cultural sensitivity.²⁰

Scripture engagement in a digital age 

The Bible is the living Word of God, central to Christian faith and practice (cf, 2 Tim 3:16–17). Engaging with Scripture involves reading, meditating, and applying its truths. Digital tools offer new avenues for engaging with Scripture in the South Asian context. Digital platforms can also facilitate communal study, connecting believers across distances and fostering a shared journey of faith.²¹

Discipleship in a digital age

In South Asia, digital discipleship can provide flexible and scalable ways to mentor and nurture believers. By integrating technology with face-to-face interactions, the church can create a holistic discipleship experience that equips believers to live out their faith authentically and effectively.²²

Unique Regional Topics that Will Shape the Region

Asylum seekers and refugees

In the case of Afghanistan, it is the asylum seekers and refugees that will make the unique regional topic which will impact the task of mission and evangelization. An estimated 8.2 million Afghans have fled their homeland since 2021 and 3.2 million people have been displaced to other areas of Afghanistan. Two-thirds of the population require some form of humanitarian assistance.

More than 1 million Rohingya refugees have fled Myanmar and religious persecution since the 1990s. Currently more than 960,000 refugees are based in Bangladesh’s Cox Bazaar region in some of the most densely populated camps in the world. Approximately 92,000 refugees have sought refuge in Thailand while 21,000 moved to India.²³

The number of Tibetan refugees has fallen from 150,000 in the 1990s to about 100,000. While precise estimates of the number of refugees in each country is not available, it is thought that about 10,000 are in Nepal, just over 1000 in Bhutan while the vast majority who fled their homeland are based in India²⁴.

Ethnicism

Divisions along ethnic lines will most probably continue to plague Sri Lanka, which has had a gory history of interethnic violence and intolerance. The state’s inability to offer lasting solutions has resulted in the conclusion of an ethnicity-based war with a fragile sense of peace. Interethnic tensions—also often falling along linguistic and religious boundaries—continue to threaten upheaval. Subtle and overt ethno-nationalist ideologies result in what seems to be a very narrow definition of permissible survival for minority communities.²⁵

As a minority community that crosses both linguistic and ethnic boundaries, Christians will continue to have opportunities to model true ethnic harmony and integration. Paul’s vision of an all-inclusive church will prove to be increasingly important in the Sri Lankan church’s witness to a gospel that unites across boundaries. Close to 70,000²⁶ people, largely from the Kuki community, have been displaced from the Northeastern state of Manipur in India. The origin of the conflict has been traced to differences between two ethnic communities in the state. A superficial message of unity will be inadequate for a future of increasing polarization: the church will first need to understand its own failure in light of the gospel’s wholistic unity if it is to live out true togetherness amidst an ethnically divided society.²⁷

A superficial message of unity will be inadequate for a future of increasing polarization: the church will first need to understand its own failure in light of the gospel’s wholistic unity if it is to live out true togetherness amidst an ethnically divided society.

Ethnicism and communal tensions in South Asia often lead to violence and discrimination, yet theologically, the church is called to be a countercultural community that transcends ethnic divisions, embodying reconciliation and unity in Christ.²⁸

Drugs and addiction

A report by the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB) has reported that 39 percent of opiate users in the world are in South Asia. It also speaks about India as being one of the primary markets for opiates and the cultivation of narcotics. The largest seizure ever made in India was of nearly 3000 kg of heroin in September 2021 and another consignment of 75 kg of heroin was seized in July 2022.²⁹

Southwestern Asia in general and Afghanistan in particular is a source for heroin.³⁰ In the case of Bhutan, in the first three months in 2023, the Royal Bhutan Police (RBP) arrested 628 persons, with 533 sent for de-addiction and 92 detained on charges of illegal drug trafficking.³¹ Given the size of Bhutan, this poses a major problem.

Religious pluralism and Hindu nationalism

In regions like India, religious pluralism and the rise of Hindu nationalism significantly impact the Christian community. The church faces increasing pressure and potential persecution as it navigates a landscape where Christianity is often viewed with suspicion or hostility. Hindu nationalism promotes a singular cultural and religious identity, which can lead to challenges for religious minorities, including Christians.³² This environment requires the church to strengthen its internal unity and find innovative ways to witness to the gospel in a respectful and culturally sensitive manner.³³

Economic development and urbanization

Rapid economic growth and urbanization in countries like India are transforming societies. As more people move to cities, the church has the opportunity to reach diverse urban populations but also faces the challenge of addressing urban poverty, inequality, and social fragmentation. The urban context demands that the church develop ministries that are relevant to the needs and lifestyles of city dwellers, including those in slums and high-rise apartments alike.³⁴

Youth demographics

Many regions, particularly in South Asia, have a significant youth population. This demographic trend presents both an opportunity and a challenge for the church. Engaging young people requires relevant and dynamic approaches to ministry, including the use of technology and social media. The church must address issues that concern the youth, such as education, employment, and mental health, while fostering a strong foundation of biblical discipleship.³⁵

Cultural and linguistic diversity

Regions like South Asia are characterized by immense cultural and linguistic diversity. The church must navigate this complexity by developing multilingual and multicultural ministries. This includes training indigenous leaders who can effectively minister in diverse contexts and creating resources that are accessible to people of different languages and cultures. Embracing this diversity can enrich the church’s witness but requires intentional efforts to foster inclusivity and unity.³⁶

Creation and environmental issues

Around 750 million people in South Asia have been impacted by climate-related disasters in the last two decades. The changing conditions can greatly diminish the living conditions of some of the most vulnerable people (about 800 million) in the world.³⁷ Also South Asia is home to nine of the ten most (air) polluted cities in the world. This accounts for about 2 million premature deaths across the region every year.³⁸ The church has a vital role in disaster response and environmental stewardship. By addressing these issues, the church can demonstrate God’s love and care for creation, providing practical support and spiritual hope to affected communities.³⁹

Creation care, a fundamental biblical mandate (Gen 2:15; Ps 24:1), necessitates advocating for environmental stewardship and sustainable development, mobilizing faith communities to take action on climate change, and emphasizing the moral responsibility to protect God’s creation for future generations.⁴⁰

Impacts on the Church and the Great Commission

Strengthening resilience and unity

The challenges posed by regional issues can lead to a stronger, more resilient church. An inclusive church that elevates women, children, youth and the marginalized will foster a deeper unity that will help the church face adversity and depend on God. This resilience can enhance the church’s witness, as a faith that endures hardship is compelling to onlookers. A rejuvenation of fresh ecumenical spirit with evangelistic passion is needed in our times. 

Enhancing social impact

By addressing regional issues such as poverty, environmental crises, gender and caste discrimination, the church can enhance its social impact. This holistic approach to ministry aligns with the biblical mandate to love one’s neighbor. Social impact initiatives can build bridges with non-Christian communities while respecting their culture and way of life.

Polycentric mission mindset 

This includes, but not limited to, the following key points:

Decentralization of missionary authority 

In South Asia, this decentralization⁴¹ requires a rethinking of missionary strategies and authority, recognizing and empowering local Christian leaders and communities. This shift acknowledges the significant contributions of indigenous missionaries who understand the cultural and social nuances of their regions better than outsiders. The rise of non-Western missionaries has emphasized the importance of cultural contextualization and indigenization of the gospel, allowing Christianity to take root and grow within different South Asian contexts.⁴² 

Mutual enrichment and learning 

Missionary movements from South Asia, are revitalizing the church worldwide, bringing fresh perspectives and vitality.⁴³ For instance, South Asian Christians bring unique insights into suffering, community living, and interfaith dialogue, enriching the broader Christian community.

Navigating theological diversity

As different cultural interpretations of Christianity emerge, it is crucial to maintain unity while respecting diversity; where theological perspectives can vary significantly even within the region, this challenge presents an opportunity for richer theological dialogue and mutual learning. 

Power dynamics and collaboration

This means fostering collaboration between Western and non-Western missionaries, ensuring that local voices are heard and respected. Collaborative efforts can lead to more effective and holistic mission strategies, addressing the complex social, economic, and spiritual needs of South Asian communities.

Polycentric resource mobilization

This concept is crucial for fostering a more equitable, just, and sustainable approach to mission work.⁴⁴ 

Equitable resource mobilization 

As a minority community that crosses both linguistic and ethnic boundaries, they will continue to have opportunities to model true ethnic harmony and integration. The early church’s modelling of the collective meeting of needs must drive the South Asian church’s response. 

Yet other impacts would include disability, men and women relationships, gender and political issues.

Opportunities and Challenges for the Great Commission

Opportunities

Holistic ministry

Addressing social, economic, healthcare and environmental issues presents opportunities for holistic ministry that meets both physical and spiritual needs. This can lead to more integrated and impactful mission efforts.⁴⁵ The church has the opportunity to advocate for systemic change, provide direct support, and challenge unjust structures, engaging in community development, education, and advocacy to fulfill the biblical mandate to uplift the poor and ensure equitable access to resources and opportunities.⁴⁶

The church has the opportunity to advocate for systemic change, provide direct support, and challenge unjust structures, engaging in community development, education, and advocacy to fulfill the biblical mandate to uplift the poor and ensure equitable access to resources and opportunities.

Youth engagement 

Engaging the large youth population can invigorate the church with new energy and perspectives. Youth ministries that are dynamic and relevant can foster a new generation of committed disciples.

Cultural richness

Embracing cultural and linguistic diversity can enrich the church’s understanding and expression of the gospel. This diversity can also enhance global mission efforts by providing a wider range of cultural insights and approaches.

Urban ministry 

Urbanization offers the opportunity to reach large and diverse populations concentrated in cities. Urban ministry can serve in areas such as employment generation, healthcare and education.

Contextual Christian literature 

While the language of ministry has been regional, such as Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu, etc., the language of ministerial training has predominantly been English. This situation needs to change especially in the context of persecution and growth of Christianity in rural areas. Dependency on translation also needs to be reduced and original writings in the language of the mission field must be promoted.⁴⁷

Challenges 

Persecution and religious tension

Navigating persecution and religious tension requires wisdom, courage, unity, and resilience.

Resource allocation

Addressing diverse needs in various regions requires careful allocation of resources. The church must prioritize effectively and ensure that its efforts are sustainable.

Maintaining doctrinal integrity 

In the face of diverse cultural contexts and societal pressures, maintaining doctrinal integrity is essential. The church must uphold biblical truths while being culturally sensitive and relevant.

Leadership development

Developing leaders who can navigate complex regional issues and lead effectively in diverse contexts is a significant challenge. This requires robust training programs and ongoing support for leaders.

Other key topics include interdenominational Christian unity, ministerial utilization of digital media and resources with ethical sensitivity, etc.

Conclusion 

Christianity in South Asia is as old as Christianity itself. From the arrival of Apostle Thomas in the first century AD in India, to the development of indigenous Christianity throughout the region in our own times, South Asia has a rich Christian history.⁴⁸ In South Asia’s Christian story, one finds striking similarities with global Christian issues as well as unique themes that call for special attention in the region. This report has attempted to present a glimpse of some of those themes and issues. It is our prayer that the Lord will enable his church and missions in this strategic region to be his effective witness in the midst of challenges and opportunities for his glory.

Endnotes

1. Kenneth R. Ross, Daniel Jeyaraj, and Todd M. Johson, eds., Christianity in South and Central Asia (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Academic, 2021).
2. Stephen King, ‘State of Great Commission Report on Afghanistan’, unpublished report, July 2024.
3. Bony Baroi, ‘State of Great Commission Report on Bangladesh’, unpublished report, July 2024.
4. Open Doors, ‘Persecution Index’, Open Doors, accessed 2 July 2024, https://www.opendoors.org/en-US/persecution/countries/.
5. Open Doors, ‘Bangladesh,’ Open Doors, accessed 2 July 2024, https://www.opendoors.org/en-US/persecution/countries/bangladesh/
6. WaterAid Australia, ‘Sanitation Workers in Pakistan’, accessed 3 July 2024, https://www.wateraid.org/au/articles/sanitation-workers-in-pakistan.
7. Global Christian Relief, ‘Faith, Hope, and Slavery: A Christian Family’s Struggle in Pakistan’s Brick Kilns’, accessed 3 July 2024, https://globalchristianrelief.org/christian-persecution/stories/faith-hope-and-slavery-a-christian-familys-struggle-in-pakistans-brick-kilns/.
8. Adeel Samuel and Rubab Raza, ‘State of Great Commission Report on Pakistan’, unpublished report, July 2024.
9. https://frontline.thehindu.com/news/united-christian-forum-slams-government-denial-of-rising-attacks-on-christians-and-calls-for-independent-probe/article67070728.ece
10. UN Refugee Agency, ‘Afghanistan Refugee Crisis Explained’, accessed 3 July 2024, https://www.unrefugees.org/news/afghanistan-refugee-crisis-explained/
11. Poverty Rate in India: https://www.forbesindia.com/article/explainers/poverty-rate-in-india/90117/1 Accessed 15 July 2024. 
12. Joel Christian, ‘Love in Action: How the Great Commandment Fuels the Great Commission’, unpublished paper, July 2024. 
13. Joel Christian, ‘Love in Action’.
14. Joel Christian, ‘Love in Action’.
15. ‘Learning from Kerala and Bengal on Migrant Workers’, The New Indian Express. 30 January 2024. https://www.newindianexpress.com/opinions/2024/Jan/30/learning-from-kerala-and-bengal-on-migrant-workers
16. Joel Christian, ‘Love in Action: How the Great Commandment Fuels the Great Commission’, unpublished paper, July 2024.
17. Joel Christian, ‘Love in Action’.
18. Raju Gurung, ‘State of the Great Commission Report on Bhutan’, unpublished paper, June 2024. 
19. Joel Christian, ‘Love in Action’, unpublished paper, July 2024.
20. Richard Howell, ‘Christianity’s New Heartland: A Global Shift and Its Implications for South Asia’, unpublished paper, July 2024.
21. Richard Howell, ‘Christianity’s New Heartland’.
22. Richard Howell, ‘Christianity’s New Heartland’.
23. ‘Rohingya Refugee Crisis Explained’, UN Refugee Agency, accessed 17 July 2024. https://www.unrefugees.org/news/rohingya-refugee-crisis-explained/.
24. ‘Tibetan Refugees in India’, Migration Policy Institute, Accessed 17 July 2024. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/tibetan-refugees-india#:~:text=The%20number%20of%20Tibetan%20refugees,Nepal%20and%201%2C300%20in%20Bhutan.
25. Ruth Surenthiraraj, ‘State of the Great Commission Report on Sri Lanka’, unpublished paper, June 2024. 
26. ‘Manipur violence accounted for 97% of displacements in South Asia in 2023: report’, The Hindu, accessed 17 July 2024, https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/manipur/manipur-violence-accounted-for-97-of-displacements-in-south-asia-in-2023-report/article68177995.ece.
27. Ruth Surenthiraraj, ‘State of the Great Commission Report on Sri Lanka’, unpublished paper, June 2024.
28. Richard Howell, ‘Christianity’s New Heartland: A Global Shift and Its Implications For South Asia’, unpublished paper, July 2024.
29. https://thewire.in/government/heroin-seuzure-adani-mundra-worry-indian-authorities
30. ‘New Report Flags Terror-Internet Links in Drug Trade in South Asia’, United Nations in India, accessed 17 July 2024, https://india.un.org/en/266251-new-report-flags-terror-internet-links-drug-trade-south-asia#:~:text=The%20illegal%20drug%20trade%20is,users%20reside%20in%20South%20Asia.
31. ‘RBP Arrest 628 Individuals in Drug Cases from January to Mid-March 2024’, The Bhutanese, accessed 2 July 2024, https://thebhutanese.bt/rbp-arrest-628-individuals-in-drug-cases-from-january-to-mid-march-2024/#:~:text=From%20January%20to%20mid%2DMarch%202024%2C%20the%20Royal%20Bhutan%20Police,custody%2C%20charged%20for%20illegal%20trafficking.
32. See, Shivraj K. Mahendra, ‘The Persecution of Christians in the World: Exploring a Major Trend in World Christianity’ New Life Theological Journal (July-Dec 2016): 33-45. 
33. Joel Christian, ‘Love in Action’.
34. Joel Christian, ‘Love in Action’.
35. Joel Christian, ‘Love in Action’.
36. Joel Christian, ‘Love in Action’.
37. ‘Integrating Climate and Development in South Asia Region’, World Bank, accessed 17 July 2024, https://www.worldbank.org/en/region/sar/brief/integrating-climate-and-development-in-south-asia/integrating-climate-and-development-in-south-asia-region.
38. World Bank, ‘Air Pollution in South Asia’, accessed 17 July 2024, https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/59caa0ae9263d449e65281b635541828-0310012022/original/AirPollution-Highlights.pdf.
39. Joel Christian, ‘Love in Action: How the Great Commandment Fuels the Great Commission’, unpublished paper, July 2024.
40. Richard Howell, ‘Christianity’s New Heartland: A Global Shift and Its Implications for South Asia’, unpublished paper, July 2024.
41. Andrew Walls, The Cross-Cultural Process in Christian History: Studies in the Transmission and Appropriation of Faith (Orbis Books, 2002), 21.
42. Lamin Sanneh, Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on Culture (Orbis Books, 1989), 67.
43. Dana Robert, Christian Mission: How Christianity Became a World Religion. (Wiley-Blackwell,2009), 209.
44. Richard Howell, ‘Christianity’s New Heartland: A Global Shift and Its Implications For South Asia’, unpublished paper, July 2024.
45. Joel Christian, ‘Love in Action: How the Great Commandment Fuels the Great Commission,’ unpublished paper, July 2024.
46. Richard Howell, ‘Christianity’s New Heartland: A Global Shift and Its Implications for South Asia’, unpublished paper, July 2024. 
47. See, Shivraj K. Mahendra, ‘Translation as Mission: A Brief History of My Pilgrimage in Hindi Theological Translation’, Indian Church History Review, vol. 56, no. 1, January 2022.
48. For a recent history of Christianity in Asia, see Amos Yong, Mark A Lamport, and Timothy TN Lim, eds., Uncovering the Pearl: The Hidden Story of Christianity in Asia (Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2023).